The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs on the carcinogenic risk to humans concluded that combined oral oestrogen–progestogen contraceptives are carcinogenic to humans (IARC, 2007). This evaluation was made on the basis of increased risks for cancer of the breast (among current and recent users only), cervix and liver (in populations that are at low risk for hepatitis B viral infection). There is also convincing evidence in humans that these agents confer a protective effect against cancer of the endometrium and ovary.